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@article{190588,
        author = {Abhishek Kumar Chaudhary and Rupinder Kaur and Prince Sood},
        title = {Non-invasive Measurement of Blood Components: Development and Applications of Sensors for In-vivo Hemoglobin Monitoring},
        journal = {International Journal of Innovative Research in Technology},
        year = {2026},
        volume = {12},
        number = {8},
        pages = {6797-6800},
        issn = {2349-6002},
        url = {https://ijirt.org/article?manuscript=190588},
        abstract = {Haemoglobin (Hb) is one of the most important indicators of blood health because it reflects the body’s ability to carry oxygen. Accurate measurement of Hb is essential for detecting anaemia, monitoring blood loss, and managing several medical conditions. Traditional testing methods, though reliable, are invasive and often uncomfortable for patients. In this work, we describe the development of a non-invasive haemoglobin monitoring prototype that uses optical sensing methods such as photoplethysmography (PPG) and near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy. The system combines LEDs of multiple wavelengths, photodiodes, and a microcontroller (ESP32/Arduino) to collect and process signals. After noise removal using filters, haemoglobin levels are estimated using the Modified Beer–Lambert Law. Calibration was carried out against standard invasive methods like CBC and Hemocue. The results showed that the device could estimate haemoglobin levels with an average error of ±1 g/dL compared to conventional testing. This makes the system suitable for real-time monitoring and wearable applications. Future improvements may involve machine learning-based algorithms, further sensor miniaturisation, and better handling of variations across individuals.},
        keywords = {Non-invasive monitoring, Haemoglobin estimation, PPG, Near-infrared spectroscopy, Wearable devices},
        month = {January},
        }